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名詞和主謂一致
一、 名詞的分類(lèi)
   英語(yǔ)中名詞主要可以分為可數(shù)名詞和不可數(shù)名詞。
1．可數(shù)名詞
   可數(shù)名詞一般都有單復(fù)數(shù)。單數(shù)時(shí)，名詞前可加不定冠詞a/an；復(fù)數(shù)時(shí)，前面可加數(shù)詞，名詞本身要改成復(fù)數(shù)形式。
   可數(shù)名詞的復(fù)數(shù)有規(guī)則和不規(guī)則兩種變化。規(guī)則的名詞，只要在單數(shù)名詞之后加“s”，“es”或去“y”加“ies”就行，如：anumbrella, twelve umbrellas；a factory, threefactories。不規(guī)則的名詞變化則要靠積累記憶，如：a mouse, ten mice；a policeman, sixpolicemen。
   有少數(shù)可數(shù)名詞，如sheep，works（工廠(chǎng)），Chinese等，它們的單復(fù)數(shù)同形：a sheep, four sheep；achemical works, five chemical works。
   此外，還有一些可數(shù)名詞只有復(fù)數(shù)形式，如clothes，trousers，cattle，police，people(人，人民)等。
   英語(yǔ)名詞中還有一些合成詞，它們的復(fù)數(shù)形式有三種可能：1）后面的部分變成復(fù)數(shù)形式：grown-ups，boystudents，grandchildren。2）前面的部分變成復(fù)數(shù)形式：passers-by，lookers-on，sons-in-law。3）前、后都變成復(fù)數(shù)形式：mendoctors，women drivers。
2．不可數(shù)名詞
   不可數(shù)名詞沒(méi)有單復(fù)數(shù)的變化，前面也不能加a/an，或數(shù)詞。但是我們可以用量詞來(lái)表示不可數(shù)名詞的數(shù)量，單復(fù)數(shù)表現(xiàn)在量詞上，如：apiece of paper；two pieces of paper。
   在有些情況下，不可數(shù)名詞也可用a/an，表“一種”、“某種”的意思，如have a wonderful time，receive agood education，be made into a fine paper。
   有時(shí)為了表示量大，不可數(shù)名詞的后面也可加“s”，如sands，ashes，waters等。
   但是我們?cè)趯W(xué)習(xí)不可數(shù)名詞的時(shí)候，特別要記住英語(yǔ)中有一些名詞，它們無(wú)論在什么情況下，前面都不能用a/an，后面也不可加“s”，如weather，information，等。
3．有的名詞既可是可數(shù)名詞，也可是不可數(shù)名詞
   英語(yǔ)中有相當(dāng)一部分的名詞，既可以是可數(shù)，也可以是不可數(shù)，它們的意義有時(shí)略有不同，有時(shí)則完全不同。如：difficulty,success, time, work，paper，glass，等。
4．用于表示可數(shù)與不可數(shù)名詞的數(shù)量“多”“少”的常用詞和詞組
   跟可數(shù)名詞連用的如：few, a few, many。
   跟不可數(shù)名詞連用的如：little, a little, much。
   可數(shù)與不可數(shù)都能用的是：a lot of , plenty of。

二、主謂一致
1．通常被看作單數(shù)的主語(yǔ)部分
1）不定式、動(dòng)名詞和主語(yǔ)從句。
  eg.. To see is to believe.
    Seeing is believing.
    What he said was different from what he did.
2）表示“時(shí)間”“距離”“金錢(qián)數(shù)量”的名詞。
  eg. Twenty years is quite a long time.
    10kilometers doesn’t seem to be a long distance to Mira.
    300 dollarsis too much for this old coin.
3）數(shù)學(xué)式子。
  eg. Two plus five is seven.
4）書(shū)報(bào)雜志、國(guó)家、單位的名字。
  eg. The Times is published daily.
    The United States is a big country.
5）前面用a kind of, a sort of或this kind of, this sort of等詞組的名詞。
  eg. This kind of tree(s) often grows well inwarm weather.
6）代詞either, neither作主語(yǔ)。
  eg. Either of the plans is good.
    Neither of them was carrying a weapon.
7）many a/ more than one 加單數(shù)名詞，或one out of加復(fù)數(shù)名詞作主語(yǔ)。
  eg. Many a young man has tried and failed.
    More than one employee has been dismissed.
    One out often thousand computers was infected with the virus.
2．通常被看作復(fù)數(shù)的主語(yǔ)部分
1）一些只有復(fù)數(shù)的名詞如clothes, trousers, police等。
  eg. These trousers are dirty.
但要注意比較：A new pair of trousers is what you need。
2）代詞both作主語(yǔ)。
  eg. Both of them have received higheducation.
3．需要進(jìn)行分析才能確定的主語(yǔ)部分
1）代詞all, some,作主語(yǔ)。
  所代的名詞是可數(shù)名詞，就看作復(fù)數(shù)；是不可數(shù)名詞，就看作單數(shù)。
  eg. All is ready. (= Everything is ready.)
    All are present. (= All the people/students... are present.)
2）a lot of, lots of, plenty of, some, any, 20% of, halfof...等詞組作主語(yǔ)。
  所修飾的名詞是可數(shù)名詞，就看作復(fù)數(shù)；是不可數(shù)名詞，就看作單數(shù)。
  eg. 70% of the surface of the earth is coveredwith water.
    90% of the graduates from the high school go to university.
3）關(guān)系代詞who, which, that作主語(yǔ)。
  由先行詞決定單、復(fù)數(shù)。
  eg. The student who is talking with theprincipal is Tom.
    The students who have chosen physics will have a testtomorrow.
  但要注意one of ...與only one of...所修飾的先行詞。
  eg. He is one of the students in our class whohave been to Beijing.
    He is the only one of the students who has been to London.
4）一些表示集體意義的名詞如family, team, class等。
  當(dāng)這些名詞強(qiáng)調(diào)的是一個(gè)整體時(shí)，看作單數(shù)；當(dāng)它們強(qiáng)調(diào)的是這個(gè)集體中的成員時(shí)，看作復(fù)數(shù)。
  eg. Happy families are all alike; every unhappyfamily is unhappy in its own way.
    My family are all early risers.
4．出現(xiàn)在句首，用連詞或介詞連接的兩個(gè)名詞或詞組
1）用both...and...連接的兩個(gè)名詞看作復(fù)數(shù)。
  Both Kate and Jean are football players.
2）用or, either...or..., neither...nor..., not only...butalso...連接的兩個(gè)名詞，由靠近動(dòng)詞的名詞決定單復(fù)數(shù)。
  Either you or I am to go.
  Not only the students but also the teacher hasto observe the rules.
3）用as well as, (together) with, like, besides, but,except等連接的兩個(gè)名詞，由第一個(gè)名詞決定單復(fù)數(shù)。
  eg. His eyebrows as well as his hair are nowwhite.
    No one but these two peasants has been there.
實(shí)際上這些都是介詞短語(yǔ)提前，不是并列的主語(yǔ)。
4）用and連接的兩個(gè)名詞有幾種情況：
  a)看作復(fù)數(shù)。
    eg. Tom andMary are primary pupils.
  b) 在有every ... and every ..., each ... and each... 的時(shí)候；或用and連接的兩個(gè)名詞表示的是一件東西或一個(gè)人時(shí)，看作單數(shù)。
  eg. Every boy and every girl in our country hasthe right to go to school.
    Bread andbutter is what he eats for breakfast every day.


動(dòng)詞的時(shí)態(tài)與語(yǔ)態(tài)
一、動(dòng)詞的時(shí)態(tài)
 英語(yǔ)的動(dòng)詞可以有十六種變化，但現(xiàn)在常用的是十二種，其中有九種是高中學(xué)生必須掌握的，還有三種只要理解。現(xiàn)以動(dòng)詞do為例，十二種時(shí)態(tài)的形式列表如下：
   一般   進(jìn)行   完成   完成進(jìn)行
現(xiàn)在   do/does   is/am/aredoing   have/has done   have/has been doing
過(guò)去   did   was/weredoing    haddone    *hadbeen doing
將來(lái)    shall/willdo   *shall/will bedoing   *shall/will havedone    
過(guò)去將來(lái)    woulddo         
（打星號(hào)的為理解項(xiàng)目）

1．一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)態(tài)
 A)意義：現(xiàn)階段經(jīng)常反復(fù)發(fā)生的動(dòng)作或現(xiàn)在的狀態(tài)。
  eg. He gets up at six every morning.
    There is a big tree in the back yard.
 B)常用的時(shí)間狀語(yǔ)：always, often, usually, sometimes,seldom, never, every day, once a week,等。
 C)表示一種真理、自然規(guī)律等，在間接引語(yǔ)中也仍然用一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)態(tài)。
  eg. The scientist explained that the earth goesround the sun, but no one believed him then.
 D)在時(shí)間、條件等狀語(yǔ)從句中，代替將來(lái)時(shí)。
  eg. If he is not busy, he will come to the partytomorrow.
 E)注意第三人稱(chēng)單數(shù)時(shí)，動(dòng)詞后面要加“s”。
2． 一般過(guò)去時(shí)態(tài)
 A)意義：過(guò)去的動(dòng)作或狀態(tài)。注意，即使是剛剛發(fā)生的事情，時(shí)間非常短，也要用過(guò)去時(shí)態(tài)。如：Why!It’s you—Mary! I didn’t know you were here!
 B)常用的時(shí)間狀語(yǔ)：yesterday, last week, 3 years ago, justnow, 等。
 C)動(dòng)詞過(guò)去式的規(guī)則變化（加ed）和不規(guī)則變化。
3．一般將來(lái)時(shí)態(tài)
A)意義：將來(lái)要發(fā)生的動(dòng)作或狀態(tài)。
B)常用的時(shí)間狀語(yǔ)：tomorrow, next moth, in two weeks, 等。
C)除了用shall/will之外的將來(lái)表達(dá)法：
 a) is/am/are going to do，意為“打算、準(zhǔn)備、馬上就要”。
  eg. It’s going to rain.
 b) is/am/are to do，意為“（計(jì)劃好/安排好）要......”
  eg. The new underground railway is to be openedto traffic next year.
 c)is/am/are about to do，意為“馬上就要”。
  eg. Hurry up! The plane is about to takeoff.
 d)某些動(dòng)詞（主要是一些表示位置移動(dòng)的動(dòng)詞）可用一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)態(tài)或現(xiàn)在進(jìn)行時(shí)態(tài)表示將來(lái)的動(dòng)作。
  eg. The train leaves for Beijing at 8:30 thisevening.
    He is going to London next week.
4．現(xiàn)在進(jìn)行時(shí)態(tài)
A)意義：表示在說(shuō)話(huà)的同時(shí)或最近一個(gè)階段正在發(fā)生的動(dòng)作。
 B)常用的時(shí)間狀語(yǔ)：now, these days, at present, at themoment, 等。
 C)有時(shí)可以和always, constantly,forever等時(shí)間狀語(yǔ)連用，表示說(shuō)話(huà)人的某中特殊的感情。
    eg. He isalways thinking of others.
      Mrs Smith is constantly quarrelling with her neighbours.
 D)有些瞬間動(dòng)詞可以用進(jìn)行時(shí)態(tài)表示“馬上就要......”
   eg. The old man isdying.
 E)英語(yǔ)中有些表示狀態(tài)、感覺(jué)、心理活動(dòng)的動(dòng)詞沒(méi)有進(jìn)行時(shí)態(tài)，如know, understand,believe, like, love, see, hear, seem, 等等。
5．過(guò)去進(jìn)行時(shí)態(tài)
 A)意義：表示過(guò)去某個(gè)時(shí)刻正在做的動(dòng)作。
 B)常用的時(shí)間狀語(yǔ)：this time yesterday, at 9:00 lastnight, 等。
 C)有些動(dòng)詞（主要是一些表示位置移動(dòng)等的動(dòng)詞和瞬間動(dòng)詞）的過(guò)去進(jìn)行時(shí)態(tài)可以表示過(guò)去將來(lái)的意義。
    eg. I wastold that she was leaving for Australia the next morning.
*6．將來(lái)進(jìn)行時(shí)態(tài)
A)意義：表示將來(lái)某個(gè)時(shí)刻正在發(fā)生的動(dòng)作。
 B)常用的時(shí)間狀語(yǔ)：this time tomorrow, at 9:00 next Sundaymorning, 等。
   eg. What will you be doing at9:00 on June 7next year?
7．現(xiàn)在完成時(shí)態(tài)
A)意義：a. 表示過(guò)去某個(gè)時(shí)刻開(kāi)始，一直持續(xù)到現(xiàn)在的動(dòng)作或狀態(tài)。（只有部分延續(xù)性動(dòng)詞，如live, work, study,等可以表示這一意義）
          eg. I have lived in Shanghai since I was born.
              He has been married for half a year.
       b. 表示過(guò)去做過(guò)的某一個(gè)動(dòng)作對(duì)現(xiàn)在的影響。
          eg. I have seen this film. It’s fantastic!
             Jack is playing video games, because he has done hishomework.
 B)常用的時(shí)間狀語(yǔ)：a. since 1990, for 9 years,等。
                  b. already, yet, just, now, this week, never, ever, so far, up tillnow, lately, in the past/last few years, 等。
 C)b組所表示的現(xiàn)在完成時(shí)態(tài)與過(guò)去時(shí)態(tài)的區(qū)別：雖然現(xiàn)在完成時(shí)態(tài)b組表示的動(dòng)作也是發(fā)生在過(guò)去，但它強(qiáng)調(diào)的是與現(xiàn)在的關(guān)系，而過(guò)去時(shí)態(tài)只表示過(guò)去發(fā)生的動(dòng)作，敘述一個(gè)事實(shí)。試比較：
  eg. 1) He went to Beijing two days ago.
      He has gone to Beijing.
    2) Henry lost his mobile phone yesterday, but found it later.
      Henry has lost his mobile phone again.
D)瞬間動(dòng)詞要表示“一直到現(xiàn)在”，不能直接用“完成時(shí)態(tài)加for”的方式，必須用其他句型。
  eg. 他離開(kāi)上海已經(jīng)三天了。
     He has left Shanghai. He left three days ago.
     He has been away from Shanghai for three days.
     It is three days since he left Shanghai.
8．過(guò)去完成時(shí)態(tài)
A)意義：表示過(guò)去某個(gè)時(shí)刻之前所做的動(dòng)作，即“過(guò)去的過(guò)去”。所以一般要用過(guò)去完成時(shí)態(tài)的話(huà)，句子中或上下文一定有一個(gè)過(guò)去時(shí)態(tài)的動(dòng)作或時(shí)間狀語(yǔ)做比較，才能用。
  eg. He had learned English before he went toCanada.
 B)常用的時(shí)間狀語(yǔ)：by the end of last year 等。
 C)在用間接引語(yǔ)時(shí)，主句的動(dòng)詞是過(guò)去時(shí)態(tài)，用來(lái)替換直接引語(yǔ)中的過(guò)去時(shí)態(tài)或現(xiàn)在完成時(shí)態(tài)。
  eg. He asked the girl, “Where have youbeen?”
→ He asked the girl where she had been.
    He said, “I cleaned the classroom yesterday.”
→ He said that he had cleaned the room the day before.
 D)有些動(dòng)詞（如hope, wish, expect, think, intend, mean,suppose等）的過(guò)去完成時(shí)態(tài)可表示過(guò)去事實(shí)上沒(méi)有實(shí)現(xiàn)的希望、計(jì)劃等。
  eg. I had hoped to attend the party, but I wastoo busy.
*9．將來(lái)完成時(shí)態(tài)
 A)意義：表示在將來(lái)某個(gè)時(shí)刻之前將會(huì)完成的動(dòng)作。
 B)常用的時(shí)間狀語(yǔ)：by the end of next year等。
   eg. You will have studiedEnglish for 10 years by the time you finish high school.
10．現(xiàn)在完成進(jìn)行時(shí)態(tài)
 A)意義：表示一個(gè)動(dòng)作從過(guò)去開(kāi)始，一直持續(xù)到現(xiàn)在。（同現(xiàn)在完成時(shí)態(tài)的第一種意義）
 B)常用時(shí)間狀語(yǔ)：since ..., for ..., so far, up till now等。
 C)現(xiàn)在完成進(jìn)行時(shí)態(tài)與現(xiàn)在完成時(shí)態(tài)的比較：
  只有現(xiàn)在完成時(shí)態(tài)的第一種意義的那些動(dòng)詞，它們的現(xiàn)在完成與現(xiàn)在完成進(jìn)行兩種時(shí)態(tài)表示的意義相同，可以互換使用。
   eg. I have studied here for 3years.  = I have been studying here for 3years.
  而其他的一些動(dòng)詞，使用兩種時(shí)態(tài)，意義就各不相同了。
   試比較： The little boy has readthe text.（小男孩已經(jīng)讀過(guò)課文了。）
           The little boy has been reading the text.（小男孩一直在讀課文。）
   試翻譯：1）從上午九點(diǎn)開(kāi)始我就一直在做功課。
              I have been doing my homework since 9 in the morning.
          2）今天的功課我已經(jīng)做好了。
              I have done today’s homework.
*11．過(guò)去完成進(jìn)行時(shí)態(tài)
意義：表示從過(guò)去某一時(shí)間開(kāi)始的動(dòng)作一直持續(xù)了一段時(shí)間再結(jié)束。（結(jié)束的時(shí)間點(diǎn)也在過(guò)去）
  eg. He had been searching for the watch for ahalf hour when we came back.
12．過(guò)去將來(lái)時(shí)態(tài)
 意義：表示從過(guò)去某一時(shí)間看將要發(fā)生的動(dòng)作或狀態(tài)，一般多用在間接引語(yǔ)中。
  eg. He told me that he would read the book asecond time.
二、動(dòng)詞的語(yǔ)態(tài)
 英語(yǔ)中的動(dòng)詞可分為及物動(dòng)詞和不及物動(dòng)詞，以及系動(dòng)詞。及物動(dòng)詞有主動(dòng)語(yǔ)態(tài)和被動(dòng)語(yǔ)態(tài)；不及物動(dòng)詞或動(dòng)詞詞組（如happen, belongto, take place等）和系動(dòng)詞（如become, seem, sound, look,taste,等）沒(méi)有被動(dòng)語(yǔ)態(tài)。
1．以動(dòng)詞do為例，被動(dòng)語(yǔ)態(tài)的各種時(shí)態(tài)的表達(dá)方式如下表：
   一般   進(jìn)行   完成
現(xiàn)在    is/am/aredone   is/am/are beingdone    have/hasbeen done
過(guò)去    was/weredone    was/werebeing done   had been done
將來(lái)    shall/willbe done      shall/will be done
過(guò)去將來(lái)    would bedone      
  各種時(shí)態(tài)在助動(dòng)詞be上表示，動(dòng)作由過(guò)去分詞體現(xiàn)。
2．注意在動(dòng)詞詞組變被動(dòng)的時(shí)候，原來(lái)詞組中的介詞或副詞不要漏掉。
  eg. The villagers took good care of the woundedsoldier.
    → The soldier was taken good care of by the villagers.
3．有些動(dòng)詞既是及物動(dòng)詞，又是不及物動(dòng)詞，這些動(dòng)詞比較少用被動(dòng)語(yǔ)態(tài)。
  eg. We begin our class at 8:00 every morning. →? Our class is begun ... ?
    Our class begins at 8:00 every morning.
4．有少數(shù)動(dòng)詞或動(dòng)詞詞組可用主動(dòng)形式，表示（從中文里我們所感覺(jué)的）被動(dòng)意義。
  eg. The book sells poorly.
    His translation reads better than yours.
    Who is to blame for the accident?



情態(tài)動(dòng)詞
一、can, may, must
   根據(jù)意思與習(xí)慣用法，我們可以把can, may, must分成以下兩組用法，方便學(xué)習(xí)與掌握。
1．第一組用法見(jiàn)下表（主要在初中的時(shí)候我們所掌握的）：
   詞義   肯定   否定   疑問(wèn)   過(guò)去式
can   能、會(huì)   can   can’t   Can...?   could
may   可以   may   mustn’t/maynot   May...?   might
must   必須   must   needn’t   Must...?   must/had to
A) can
 a) can的肯定、否定、疑問(wèn)及過(guò)去式的例句：
eg. Computers can do a lot of things for us.
    Money cannot buy everything.
Can you speak French?
I could run very fast when I was young.
 b) can與be able to
can與be able to的意思相近，經(jīng)?？梢曰Q使用，但是be ableto除了有一般現(xiàn)在與過(guò)去時(shí)態(tài)之外，還有將來(lái)、完成等時(shí)態(tài)，所以要表示將來(lái)能夠或已經(jīng)能夠做什么事，就要用be able to。
  eg. You will be able to communicate withforeigners fluently if you finish the course.
    The baby has been able to one or two simple sentences.
   在用過(guò)去式的時(shí)候，could與was able to的意思不同，could表示的是“當(dāng)時(shí)能夠做某事”的意思，而was/wereable to表示的是“當(dāng)時(shí)能夠，并且成功地做到了”的意思。
    試比較：
    Einstein wasable to flee Germany when Hitler came into power.
    I could passthe examination, but I was too careless.
 c) could在疑問(wèn)句時(shí)用意表示請(qǐng)求，意義同can，是一種比較客氣的表達(dá)方式。
  eg. Could you give me a hand?
B) may
a) may的肯定、否定、疑問(wèn)及過(guò)去式的例句：
  eg. You may choose anyone here you like.
    —May I leavenow?     —Yes, of course/Sure. Go ahead.
                           —No, you mustn’t. （注：口語(yǔ)中也能用cannot。）
I was told that the boss might come to the office before 9
b)mustn’t與may not.
   mustn’t一般是說(shuō)話(huà)人表示“不可以”或“禁止”，而may not一般是指按規(guī)定“不允許”的意思。試比較：
    You mustn’t leave the bike here.
    The sign on the wall reads, “Visitors may not feed the animals inthe zoo.”
  c) may可放在句首，表示“祝愿”。
   eg. May our friendship lastforever.
d) might有時(shí)用在疑問(wèn)句中，只是一種比may更客氣一點(diǎn)，而非過(guò)去式。
   eg. Might I have a few wordswith you, sir?
C) must
  a) must的肯定、否定、疑問(wèn)及過(guò)去式的例句：
   eg. Everyone must obey therules.
     —Must I finish the work today?  —Yes, youmust.
                                 —No, you needn’t/don’t have to.
     He told me he must/had to see a doctor tomorrow morning.
  b) must與have to
   用must更強(qiáng)調(diào)主觀(guān)上“必須”，而have to 更強(qiáng)調(diào)客觀(guān)上的“不得不”。
   在間接引語(yǔ)中，主句動(dòng)詞是過(guò)去式時(shí)，用had to多，但must也可以用。
    haveto有現(xiàn)在、過(guò)去和將來(lái)三種時(shí)態(tài)。
  c) must有時(shí)可以表示“偏偏”“非...不可”的意思。
   eg. Why must you make such amess when the visitors are coming?

2．第二組用法見(jiàn)下表：
   詞義   肯定   否定   疑問(wèn)   過(guò)去式   進(jìn)行式
can   可能/一定   /   cannot   Can...?   can’t havedone    can’t bedoing
may   可能   may   may not   /   may have dong   may be doing
must   一定   must   /   /   must havedone    must bedoing
a) can, may,must的第二種用法，是用來(lái)表示說(shuō)話(huà)人的一種推測(cè)。其中may與must的區(qū)別其實(shí)是說(shuō)話(huà)人對(duì)可能性大小所做判斷的區(qū)別，覺(jué)得可能性大，就用must，可能性小，就用may。而can與may,must是肯定、否定、疑問(wèn)分工的不同。
  現(xiàn)在時(shí)舉例：
—Can Tom be in the classroom?
    —Yes, he must be there.
    或—Yes, he may be there, but I’m not quite sure.
    或—No, he can’t be there, because he hasn’t come to schooltoday.
  過(guò)去時(shí)舉例：
    I must havebeen asleep. I didn’t hear your footsteps.
    David becameangry at the meeting. He may have misunderstood what I meant.
    James can’thave forgotten the examination yesterday. There must have beensomething wrong with him, I believe.
 b)表示可能性的否定句中有時(shí)也可用may，但意思與cannot有所不同。maynot一般解釋為“可能不”，而cannot解釋為“不可能”
 c)表示可能性，也可以用might和could，但并非may和can的過(guò)去式，而是表示說(shuō)話(huà)人覺(jué)得可能性實(shí)在是比較小了，有虛擬的意味。跟may與can一樣，might用在肯定句，could用在否定句和疑問(wèn)句。mightdo的過(guò)去式是might have done，could的過(guò)去式是could have done。
  eg. —Could it be Susan at thedoor?  —Yes, it might be her.（現(xiàn)在口語(yǔ)中也可用couldbe回答）
 *d) could havedone也可以用在肯定句里，表示過(guò)去有這種可能，但事實(shí)上沒(méi)有發(fā)生（虛擬語(yǔ)氣的用法）。
  eg. It was dangerous to do so. You could havekilled yourself!
二、shall, will, would
1．用在一般疑問(wèn)句中，表示征求對(duì)方的意見(jiàn)。第一、第三人稱(chēng)用shall，第二人稱(chēng)用will或would。
  eg. Shall turn on the TV?
    Shall my brother go with us?
    Will/Would you do me a favour?
2．shall與第二、第三人稱(chēng)連用，用在肯定、否定句中，表示“命令、允諾、警告、威脅，及說(shuō)話(huà)人的意愿和決心”。
  eg. You shall do it at once!
    He shall have the money when he finish his work on time.
    You shall fail if you don’t work hard.
    If Shylock breaks the law, everything he has shall be taken awayfrom him.
3．will在陳述句中可用于任何人稱(chēng)，表示“意愿、意志、決心”等。有時(shí)也可用在條件句中。
  eg. I will help you at any time ifnecessary.
    The captain will land you safe in Liverpool, if you will beman.
4．will和would可以表示習(xí)慣性反復(fù)發(fā)生的動(dòng)作，或在某一條件下，一定回發(fā)生的動(dòng)作。這時(shí)，will一般指“現(xiàn)在”，would一般指“過(guò)去”。
  eg. Oil will float on water, because it islighter.
    He wouldtake a walk after supper when he lived here.
  上面例句中的would可以用used to來(lái)替換。used to也表示“過(guò)去常常”，但usedto還隱含了“現(xiàn)在不再這樣了”的意思。而would則沒(méi)有這種意思。
  eg. He used to smoke, but he has given it upnow.
三、should/ought to
1．可以表示一種必要性、義務(wù)，解為“應(yīng)當(dāng)、應(yīng)該”?？梢耘c任何人稱(chēng)連用，并用在肯定、否定、疑問(wèn)句中。但疑問(wèn)句時(shí)用should更多一些。
   eg. You should/ought to paymore attention to your spelling.
2．可以表示一種推測(cè)，解為“應(yīng)該是”。用于任何人稱(chēng)的肯定、否定、疑問(wèn)句。它還有進(jìn)行和完成兩種形式：should/ought to bedoing（對(duì)現(xiàn)在正在進(jìn)行的動(dòng)作的推測(cè)）和should/ought to havedone（表示與過(guò)去的事實(shí)相反，“本來(lái)應(yīng)該”的意思）。
  eg. They should be here by now.
    The students should be doing the experiment in the lab.
    You should have come here ten minutes earlier.
3．should有時(shí)可以表示說(shuō)話(huà)人驚訝的感覺(jué)，解為“竟然”。
  eg. I have never imagined that he should say soat the meeting.
四、need和dare
   need和dare兩詞，都既可作為情態(tài)動(dòng)詞，又可作為實(shí)意動(dòng)詞，所以復(fù)習(xí)的重點(diǎn)是分清在句子中它們分別是哪種動(dòng)詞。
1．need解為“需要、必須”。
 A) 作為情態(tài)動(dòng)詞時(shí)，多用于疑問(wèn)句和否定句。
    eg. —Need Ido it again?  —No, you needn’t.
   注意：與Must I do itagain?的意思相近，但用need問(wèn)，問(wèn)的人一般希望得到的是否定的回答；而用must問(wèn)，問(wèn)話(huà)的人一般希望得到的是肯定回答。
 B) 作為實(shí)意動(dòng)詞，可用于各種句型，是及物動(dòng)詞，可以跟名詞做賓語(yǔ)。
    eg. We needanother five workers to do the work.
 C) needn’t have done與didn’t need to do的區(qū)別
    needn’t havedone和didn’t need to do分別是情態(tài)動(dòng)詞用法與實(shí)意動(dòng)詞用法的過(guò)去形式，但是所表示的意義不同。needn’t havedone意思是“本來(lái)不必”，言下之意是“做了不必要做的事了”；而didn’t need todo意思是“當(dāng)時(shí)不必要”，言下之意是“當(dāng)時(shí)不必要，因此可能就沒(méi)有做”。
  試比較：She was too nervous to reply, butfortunately she didn’t need to say anything.
           她緊張得無(wú)法答復(fù)，但幸運(yùn)的是，她那時(shí)什么也不必說(shuō)。
         You needn’t have mentioned it to him, because he had been toldeverything before.
           你本來(lái)不必跟他提這件事的，之前已經(jīng)有人把一切都講給他聽(tīng)了。
2．dare解為“敢”。
 A) 作為情態(tài)動(dòng)詞時(shí)，多用于疑問(wèn)句和否定句。
   eg. Dare you say that to yourboss?
     The little boy dare not face his teacher.
   但是dare的固定詞組“I daresay...”，用在肯定句中。
   eg. He’ll come again, I daresay.
  注意：dare作為情態(tài)動(dòng)詞時(shí)，它的過(guò)去式是dared。
   eg. They dared not laugh infront of their manager.
 B)作為實(shí)意動(dòng)詞，dare可以用在各種句型里。
  但是注意在否定句里，有時(shí)后面的不定式的to可以省略。
   eg. They didn’t dare (to)laugh in front of their manager.

代詞
一、人稱(chēng)代詞、物主代詞和反身代詞
1．人稱(chēng)代詞的主格、賓格和所有格
  作主語(yǔ)時(shí)用主格，做賓語(yǔ)和表語(yǔ)時(shí)用賓格，作定語(yǔ)時(shí)用所有格。
  形容詞性的所有格和名詞性的所有格：如my和mine，your和yours等。
     eg. Your school is so different from ours (= our school).
2．英語(yǔ)中第一、第二、第三人稱(chēng)代詞在句子中的排列次序：?jiǎn)螖?shù)時(shí)為you, he and I；復(fù)數(shù)時(shí)為we, you andthey。
3．it用于指人的情況：
  A) —Who is it/that speaking? —It’s Mary speaking.
  B) —What’s wrong with the baby? —It’s cryingloudly.
4．雙重所有格的用法
  在英語(yǔ)中經(jīng)常會(huì)碰到雙重所有格的情況，如a friend of mine，theinvention of his等，這種表達(dá)法的意思與my friend, hisinvention基本相同，只有細(xì)微的差別。
  另外，名詞也有雙重所有格的表達(dá)法，如a friend of my father’s, theinvention of Professor Brown’s等。
5．在表示賓語(yǔ)的身體部位的名詞前，一般用定冠詞the代替所有格。
  試比較：The policeman caught the thief by thearm.
         The young lady carried a small baby in her arm.
6．We students與Our students的區(qū)別
  Westudents中文為“我們學(xué)生”，“學(xué)生”是“我們”的同位語(yǔ)，用這一詞語(yǔ)的時(shí)候，說(shuō)話(huà)人是學(xué)生。而Ourstudents其實(shí)是“我們的學(xué)生”，說(shuō)話(huà)人不是學(xué)生。當(dāng)然，用We students的時(shí)候，Westudents必須是主語(yǔ)，如果是賓語(yǔ)，則用us students。
  eg. We students should learn more than bookknowledge at school.
    Good teachers always bear us students in mind.
7．反身代詞的用法
  A)作賓語(yǔ)
    eg. We mustlearn to adjust ourselves to the new situation.
   注意反身代詞與代詞賓格作賓語(yǔ)的區(qū)別：
    eg. Jane’s mother stared at her in the mirror.（Jane的母親望著鏡子中的Jane。）
       Jane’s mother stared at herself in the mirror.（Jane的母親望著鏡子中的自己。）
   試譯：請(qǐng)好好保重。
          Please take good care of yourself.
         在幼兒園里，老師會(huì)很好地照顧你的。
          Teachers will take good care of you in the kindergarten.
  B)用作同位語(yǔ)，強(qiáng)調(diào)主語(yǔ)或賓語(yǔ)
  eg. I myself would never do such a thing. (= Iwould never do such a thing myself.)
    We talked with the mayor himself.
  C)反身代詞的一些詞組
    by oneself單獨(dú)，獨(dú)自  eg. He finished the task by himself.
    for oneself為了自己   eg. She cooked a meal forherself.
    betweenourselves就我們之間    eg. This is a secret between ourselves.
    teachoneself sth. 自學(xué)... eg. Lenin taught himself English when he was inSiberia.
    seat oneself= be seated  eg. He seated himself at the back ofthe room.
    devoteoneself to = be devoted to  獻(xiàn)身于
二、指示代詞
1．this, these經(jīng)常指下面要講的東西，而that, those經(jīng)常指前面講過(guò)的東西。
  eg. He always begins his story like this: “Onceupon a time, there was a ...”
    He was ill. That’s why he didn’t come.
2．that與those可以指代前面提到的名詞，經(jīng)常在比較級(jí)的句子中出現(xiàn)。
  eg. The boy told me his story and also that ofhis sister’s.
    Weather in Shanghai is warmer than that in Beijing.
    The products produced this year are different from those producedlast year.
3．this與that可用作副詞，放在形容詞或副詞前，意思相當(dāng)于so。
  eg. I didn’t expect the exam would be thiseasy.
    I can only go that far, to the riverside.
三、不定代詞
1．one
 one只能指代可數(shù)名詞的單數(shù)形式，它與it的不同之處是it代替前面所提到的名詞，是特指的，也就是前面提到的同一件東西，而one代替前面所提到的名詞，但它是一種泛指，即是這一類(lèi)東西中的任何一個(gè)。試比較：
  I have lost my cell phone and I have to buy one(= a cell phone).
  I have bought a new cell phone. I bought it inHong Kong.
2．a(chǎn)ny, some, anyone, someone, anybody, somebody, anything,something
 A)any一般用在否定句，疑問(wèn)句與條件狀語(yǔ)從句中。
   eg. —Have you anyquestions?  —No, I haven’t any.
     Please buy some apples if there are any.
  any也可以用在肯定句中，表示“任何一個(gè)”的意思。
    eg. This iscommon knowledge. Any pupil knows it.
 B)some一般用在肯定句中，但可以用在一種表示邀請(qǐng)的疑問(wèn)句中。
    eg. Wouldyou like to have some drinks? (= Have some drinks, please.)
      試比較：Have you bought any drinks?
  some有時(shí)還可以解釋為“某個(gè)”的意思，相當(dāng)于certain。
    eg. I haveread it in some magazine. (= in a certain magazine.)
 C)anyone, someone, anybody,somebody都是指人，anything, something都是指物。無(wú)論是指人還是指物，都是單數(shù)性質(zhì)。
3．a(chǎn)nother與the other等的用法見(jiàn)下表：
   單數(shù)   復(fù)數(shù)
泛指    another =another one   other ones = others
特指    the other= the other one   the other ones =the others
  eg. I don’t like the colour of the shirt. Willyou please show me another (one/ shirt)?
    There were only two shirts left in the shop. I didn’t like the blueone. So I took the other.
    We have been told that only three of us have passed the exam, andthe others have to do it again next week.
    There are many children in the park. Some are singing, others aredancing.
4．each與every
  each相當(dāng)于形容詞或名詞，而every相當(dāng)與形容詞。
  each指兩個(gè)或兩個(gè)以上的“每一個(gè)”，every指三個(gè)或三個(gè)以上的“每一個(gè)”。
  用each的時(shí)候，?？蓮?qiáng)調(diào)“各不相同”，而用every時(shí)，常強(qiáng)調(diào)“全部都”。
  eg. Each of the hats cost 30 dollars. (= Thehats cost 30 dollars each.)
There are shops on each side of the street.
    At the meeting, each student expressed his or her own idea.
    Every one of the students agreed with me.
5．everyone與every one
   everyone只指人，同everybody。
   everyone既可指物，也可指人，指人時(shí)只用在of短語(yǔ)之前。
   eg. No one is absent today.Everyone is here.
     All the pictures are beautiful. I like every one of them.
6．a(chǎn)ll與both；any與either；none與neither
  這三對(duì)代詞的區(qū)別是一樣的，在與指代數(shù)量上的不同。all, any,none都是指代三個(gè)或三個(gè)以上，both, either, neither都是指代兩者。
  eg. All the students like my idea.
    Both his parents are ordinary workers.
    There are many books in our library. You can borrow any ofthem.
    I have two dictionaries. You may take either one.
    None of my classmates will go there with me.
    Neither of his two brothers could help him during that time.
7．no one, nobody, nothing和none。
  no one =nobody，都是指人；nothing指物；none既可指人，也可指物。
  no one, nobody,nothing都是單數(shù)性質(zhì)，none作主語(yǔ)，如指代不可數(shù)名詞，看作單數(shù)，如果指代可數(shù)名詞，既可看作單數(shù)，也可看作復(fù)數(shù)。
  在作否定回答時(shí)，用none回答有針對(duì)性的人或東西，用no one, nobody,nothing回答無(wú)針對(duì)性的人或東西。
  eg. —Who did you see in theoffice?  —No one/ Nobody.
    —Is there anything in the room?  —Nothing..
    —Is there any water in your bottle?  —None.
    —How many students have been chosen in your class thistime?  —None.
8．not與all, both, every連用
not與all, both, every連用時(shí)都是部分否定，意思是“不全是”。
eg. All that glitters is not gold.
   Not every student can solvethe problem.
   Both of his parents are not athome, today.
  試析：
    Don’t spit____ (anywhere/ everywhere).


形容詞和副詞
一、形容詞、副詞的比較級(jí)與最高級(jí)
1．形容詞和副詞的比較級(jí)與最高級(jí)的變化
形容詞和副詞的比較級(jí)與最高級(jí)的變化分規(guī)則和不規(guī)則兩種情況。
規(guī)則的變化，短的詞（單音節(jié)及部分雙音節(jié)的詞）一般是在詞尾加“er”或“est”（其中重讀閉音節(jié)要雙寫(xiě)最后的輔音字母；e結(jié)尾只要加“r”或“st”；“y”加輔音結(jié)尾的去“y”加“ier”或“iest”）如：big,bigger, biggest；late, later, latest；early, earlier,earliest等，較長(zhǎng)的詞（部分雙音節(jié)及多音節(jié)的詞）在前面加上more或most，如：careful, more careful,most careful；clearly, more clearly, most clearly等。
不規(guī)則變化的詞為：good, well, bad, badly, ill, many, much, little, old,far。變化見(jiàn)下表：
原級(jí)   比較級(jí)   最高級(jí)
good, well   better   best
bad, badly, ill   worse   worst
many, much   more   most
little   less   least
old    older,elder    oldest,eldest
far    farther,furthest   farther, furthest

2．常用的比較級(jí)、最高級(jí)句型
 A) 用原級(jí)形容詞、副詞的句型：
  a) as... as...“和......一樣......”
   eg. Try to make as fewmistakes as you can.
     He speaks English as fluently as you.
  b) not as/so... as... “不如.......那樣......”
   eg. People’s brains cannotwork as fast as computers.
  c)在以上兩個(gè)句型中，我們還可以加上“倍數(shù)”“分?jǐn)?shù)”“百分?jǐn)?shù)”等詞。
   eg. Tibet is twice as large asTexas. (= Tibet is twice the size of Texas).
     My handwriting is not half so good as yours.
 B) 用比較級(jí)形容詞、副詞的句型：
  a) ...er than... / more ... than...“比......更......”
   eg. It’s cheaper to eat athome than